Brighter than candles

“You have the glittering beauty of gold and silver, and the still higher lustre of jewels, like the ruby and diamond; but none of these rival the brilliancy and beauty of flame. What diamond can shine like flame?”

The man who said these words during a Christmas Lecture, “delivered before a juvenile audience at the Royal Institution”, was born on 22 September 1791, in England. Here are some hints as to who he was:

  1. He founded the Royal Institution’s Friday Evening Discourses and in the same year the Christmas Lectures, both of which continue to this day. He himself gave many lectures, establishing his reputation as the outstanding scientific lecturer of his time.
  2. He was inspired by the discovery that electric current through a wire produced a magnetic field around the wire and started to investigate the relation between elecricity and magnetism. Months after he started, he was the first to produce an electric current from a magnetic field.
  3. Later, he found that when a permanent magnet is moved in and out of a coil of wire, a current is induced in the coil. He also discovered the law determining the production of electric currents by magnets.

I assume that by now it’s obvious that “he” is Michael Faraday.

“Although Faraday received little formal education, he was one of the most influential scientists in history. It was by his research on the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a direct current that Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena. He similarly discovered the principle of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and the laws of electrolysis. His invention of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became practical for use in technology.
As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine, invented an early form of the Bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and popularised terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion.”
Text from Wikipedia

Faraday, however, was not only a great experimentalist.

“Since the very beginning of his scientific work, Faraday had believed in what he called the unity of the forces of nature. By this he meant that all the forces of nature were but manifestations of a single universal force and ought, therefore, to be convertible into one another. In 1846 he made public some of the speculations to which this view led him. A lecturer, scheduled to deliver one of the Friday evening discourses at the Royal Institution by which Faraday encouraged the popularization of science, panicked at the last minute and ran out, leaving Faraday with a packed lecture hall and no lecturer. On the spur of the moment, Faraday offered “Thoughts on Ray Vibrations.” Specifically referring to point atoms and their infinite fields of force, he suggested that the lines of electric and magnetic force associated with these atoms might, in fact, serve as the medium by which light waves were propagated…
By 1850 Faraday had evolved a radically new view of space and force. Space was not “nothing,” the mere location of bodies and forces, but a medium capable of supporting the strains of electric and magnetic forces. The energies of the world were not localized in the particles from which these forces arose but rather were to be found in the space surrounding them. Thus was born field theory. As Maxwell later freely admitted, the basic ideas for his mathematical theory of electrical and magnetic fields came from Faraday; his contribution was to mathematize those ideas in the form of his classical field equations.”
Text from Encyclopedia Britannica

To me, that explains why Albert Einstein kept a picture of Faraday on his study wall, alongside pictures of Isaac Newton and James Clerk Maxwell. Faraday’s quest for a unified theory still continues…

Faraday's law

Image from A Visual Tour of Classical Electromagnetism.





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Faster than lightning

lightning

Can a charged particle moving through the atmosphere have a speed greater than the speed of light in the air?

I saw this question posted on Writers’ Cafe. After I ran a limited survey that got both “Yes” and “No” for answers, I decided to elaborate a bit on this topic.

According to the theory of relativity, the speed of light in vacuum (empty space), c, is the ultimate speed limit in the universe. Material particles can be accelerated to have mind-boggling kinetic energies, but their velocities will forever be smaller than c.
Air, however, is not empty space.
Light propagates in a transparent medium, such as water or air, with (phase) velocity c'<c. To be more precise, the light velocity in such a medium, c’, is given by c’=c/n, where n is the index of refraction in that medium.

In vacuum, c’=c and n=1. In air, n=1.0003.
The speed of light in air is c’=99.97% of c. Qualitatively, light propagates in the air almost, but not quite, as fast as in empty space. For a material particle to travel faster than light in the air, its velocity v should satisfy c'<v<c.

Every second, the Earth’s atmosphere is bombarded with Cosmic Rays. These are charged particles (mostly protons) originating from space. The speed of these particles ranges from a small fraction of the speed of light and up to about 0.999999999999c (see more at nasa.gov cosmicray)! For every particle that travels in air with velocity larger than 0.9997, the answer to the question above is definitely “Yes.”

Actually, most of the particles constituting the primary cosmic rays do not travel much in the air – they are either deflected by the Earth’s magnetic field or they interact with the air molecules in the upper atmosphere:

When cosmic rays interact with the Earth’s upper atmosphere, they produce cascades of secondary particles (these may include neutrons, kaons, pions, muons) and also emit Cherenkov radiation. Cherenkov radiation consists of photons emitted when a charged particle passes through transparent medium at a speed greater than the phase velocity of light in that medium.

Cherenkov radiation in air was first observed in September 1952. On a moonless night,

“two young researchers at the UK’s Atomic Energy Research Establishment went out into a field next to the Harwell facility equipped with little more than a standard-issue dustbin containing a Second World War parabolic signaling mirror only 25 cm in diameter, with a 5 cm diameter photomultiplier tube (PMT) at its focus, along with an amplifier and an oscilloscope. They pointed the mirror at the night sky, adjusted the thresholds on the apparatus and for the first time detected Cherenkov radiation produced in the Earth’s atmosphere by cosmic rays (Galbraith and Jelley 1953)…
… a decade after the initial pioneering steps by Galbraith and Jelley, the first operational air-Cherenkov telescope had been built, setting in motion a chain of events that would ultimately lead in 1989 to the observation of gamma rays from the Crab Nebula by Trevor Weekes and colleagues at the Whipple telescope in the US.”
From CERN Courier


Image of Cherenkov telescope from www.cta-observatory.ac.uk




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Initial Conditions in the library

Initial Conditions finds a place on the library shelf.
Thanks to Princeton Public Library!

ICPPLfront

ICPPLshelf

ICPPLback





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Firebird – a thriller with high stakes and realistic physics

Firebird

One of my intents was to write a story in which the science was essential; another was for it to be entertaining.
Tony Rothman, (From the Author).

Firebird is a mythological bird from the Slavic folklore. Sometimes it is large, sometimes peacock-like; its feathers are magnificent fiery red, orange, and yellow. In folk tales heroes go on quests to capture the bird. In Tony Rothman’s novel, heroes embark on a similarly difficult and perilous task – that of supplying the mankind’s need for clean and affordable energy, by creating nuclear fusion here on Earth.

In Firebird, there are two leading fusion facilities: ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) in France and CFRC (Controlled Fusion Research Center) in Texas. Both are in experimental stage, probably years before they might achieve fusion. The protagonist, Dr. Nathaniel Machuzak, is a nuclear physicist in charge of one of CFRC’s units. To his surprise, the director of the Center has ordered to achieve fusion on the day of the CFRC’s dedication.

The stakes are high. The tag price for each machine is astronomical. Corporations and politicians want limitless, safe energy, but they are not ready to shell out the money when there is no guarantee that a machine can replicate the conditions that exist at the cores of stars. Rival scientists have different agendas, and no one actually knows what might work. The stress level skyrocket, then an explosion puts the entire project at risk. Accusations are rife. Scientists’ and engineers’ lives are endangered. Police investigation uncovers secrets that make one wonder who are the good guys.

For me, the most interesting part is the real physics entwined in the story. While the facility in Texas is fictional, ITER is real, and is actually being built in France (see Wikipedia and iter.org). Reading Firebird, questions kept piling in my mind. ITER is a huge endeavor in every respect. In monetary terms, investment in fusion eclipses that in LHC in CERN. However, PR for fusion, and ITER specifically, seems to be very low key. Since fusion is rarely mentioned in news about physics, here is some background (from iter.org):

Following the first fusion experiments in the 1930s, fusion physics laboratories were established in nearly every industrialized nation. By the mid-1950s “fusion machines” were operating in the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Germany and Japan. Through these, scientists’ understanding of the fusion process was gradually refined.
A major breakthrough occurred in 1968 in the Soviet Union. Researchers there were able to achieve temperature levels and plasma confinement times—two of the main criteria to achieving fusion—that had never been attained before. The Soviet machine was a doughnut-shaped magnetic confinement device called a tokamak.
From this time on, the tokamak was to become the dominant concept in fusion research, and tokamak devices multiplied across the globe.
Fusion research has increased key fusion plasma performance parameters by a factor of 10,000 over 50 years; research is now less than a factor of 10 away from producing the core of a fusion power plant.
US fusion installations have reached temperatures of several hundred million degrees Celsius.”

ITER, which means “the way” in Latin, aims to demonstrate the feasibility of fusion. The scientific goal of the project is:

“ to deliver ten times the power it consumes. From 50 MW of input power, the ITER machine is designed to produce 500 MW of fusion power—the first of all fusion experiments to produce net energy.
During its operational lifetime, ITER will test key technologies necessary for the next step: the demonstration fusion power plant that would prove that it is possible to capture fusion energy for commercial use.”
(from iter.org).

ITER tokamak

In real world, it’ll take years before ITER’s construction will be complete, and experiments will commence. In Firebird, Tony Rothman leaped over a few decades: ITER is operational and so is its American (fictional) counterpart, the CFRC. Both facilities are populated with a multinational cast of scientists. Will either of them achieve fusion? The race is on, and neither side is ready to give up. The scientists on each side are ingenious, but is it enough when their opponents restore to intimidation, sabotage and killing?

I recommend Firebird to those who like real physics in thrillers/science fiction and are not offended by pretty intense cursing. To find more about the book and the author visit www.tonyrothman.com.








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First anniversary – what I learned from a year of blogging

Sometime in August last year, I clicked on Publish for my very first post, a tantalizingly (or so I thought) worded question – “What is The Hungry Boson?” In retrospect, throwing a question about something that no one has heard about into the voids of the internet was totally pointless. But back then I had no experience. I gathered a lot of advice for newbie bloggers and used whatever seemed applicable, which included asking questions as a way to engage readers. “What readers?” I should have asked, before I followed yet another piece-of-wisdom from the net. I cannot recall what I had thought, or whose advise I followed when deciding upon the central topic of my blog. In fact, I visited other blogs, found some that I liked a lot, but scarcely any that tackled the assortment of issues I wanted to talk and read about. This lack of competition should have raised questions, but it did not deter me from following the advice to blog about topics one is passionate about. It made sense, and blogging gurus recommend it as means to draw like-minded readers, remain authentic, and have something to say that might be worthwhile. Bloggers are advised to post on a regular basis. It is often pointed out that writing on topics one cares about helps prevent burning out.
Armed with a plethora of collated advice and brimming with things I wanted to talk about, I started to blog. A year later, it’s time to address the advice and draw conclusions about what has worked for me.

Focusing on the topic. My blog is on “Physics and Fiction”. Skimming through the 44 posts I have so far, I find that they are mostly related to either subject. In physics-themed posts I addressed topics in cosmology, images from the Hubble Space Telescope, and history of physics. Since I completed a novel about a physicist pursuing her dreams, I’ve been on a constant search for similar stories. I found only a few contemporary novels with realistic physics. I blogged about these books at The Falling Sky – contemporary fiction with realistic physics, Science in Fiction, Shadow World – an unusual hero’s journey.
Physics and physicists play little role in fiction, yet female physicists/scientists are almost entirely overlooked (Professors in children’s books). My blog often mentions the existing asymmetry between male and female researchers in physical sciences. I even did a guest post for Tenure, She Wrote about Using fiction to explore realities for women in STEM.

Picturing my blog, I did not intend it to revolve about writing or publishing, even though these topics where on my mind when I started to contemplate self-publishing Initial Conditions. In the process, I discovered new blogs, some of which I still read regularly. The more I found out about self-publishing, the more I embraced the option. Since I wanted the blog to reflect my interests, information I gleaned and concerns I had had filtered into my posts. One of my most popular posts is Self-publishing a mainstream novel – Q&A with Catherine Ryan Howard.
I don’t always stay on these topics. Things that caught my eyes while looking for something else turned into posts. These are usually heavy on photos rather than words (Gargoyles in universities, National Libraries Day in the UK ) and get more likes than my carefully thought musing. Apparently readers of the blog prefer lighthearted, fun stuff over posts about CP violation, or my own favorite – Famous physicists – A to Z.

Other conclusions after 44 posts?

  1. Write whatever I feel compelled to say, read it, and occasionally dump the whole thing. Sometimes it helps just to pour out the words. Then, by the time I finish reading my musings, I’m ready to put the ugly/petty/annoying stuff out of my mind.
  2. Post regularly (usually at the end of the week) yet occasionally take a break or a vacation. This lack of diligence probably costs me visibility, but vacation is the time to change my routine, recharge, go to different places and meet people I don’t usually see. Breaks help to keep blogging something I enjoy and want to continue doing.
  3. Press on Publish if I like what I wrote. A blog post isn’t a novel, nor a scientific paper. It doesn’t require fussing, analyzing, or editing (at least not much). Publishing when one is still enthusiastic about the stuff brings a lot of satisfaction.

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Waiting for a muse in a cafe…

The golden age of Prague café society was at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, when making an appearance at one of the elegant cafés was simply a social necessity. Surrounded by the aroma of good coffee and clouds of cigarette smoke, you would meet the leading writers, journalists, architects, artists and intellectuals of the day, who eagerly discussed politics or art or just sat quietly waiting for their muse to appear.
(From ‘Prague cafés’, at czechtourism.com)

Cafe Kafka in Prague
Café Kafka in Prague (Photo from Flickr)

Continue reading →

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The Perfect Theory – Physicists’ Battles for Muggles

After the ceremony, as the audience and speakers milled around, ready to escape into the London evening, a Polish physicist named Ludwik Silberstein ambled over to Eddington. Silberstein had already written a book about Einstein’s more restricted “special theory of relativity” and had followed Eddington’s presentation with interest. Now he pronounced, “Professor Eddington, you must be one of the three persons in the world who understand general relativity.” When Eddington was slow to respond, he added, “Don’t be modest, Eddington.” Eddington looked at him firmly and said, “On the contrary, I am trying to think who the third person is.”
From Prologue to The Perfect Theory, by Pedro G. Ferreira

Welcome to the secret world of physicists – the acid-tongued trailblazers who tower above their peers, the heads of powerful scientific dynasties, the disillusioned legends who are shunned by the younger generation. This is a world where a formidable mind keeps creating while confined to a wheelchair, a world than spans a handful of universities and virtually excludes women. You can meet them all in The Perfect Theory, A Century of Geniuses and the Battle over General Relativity.

Continue reading →

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Forty-two

“Tell us!”
“All right,” said Deep Thought. “The Answer to the Great Question…”
“Yes..!”
“Of Life, the Universe and Everything…” said Deep Thought.
“Yes…!”
“Is…” said Deep Thought, and paused.
“Yes…!”
“Is…”
“Yes…!!!…?”
“Forty-two,” said Deep Thought, with infinite majesty and calm.
      From The Hitchhicker’s Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams

Not coincidentally, this is my forty-second post. So far, I’ve blogged about physics, women in science, self-publishing, and books I’ve enjoyed. For the forty-second post, I would have loved to come with an answer to one of the mysteries of the Universe, or at least to shed some light on how to succeed as an author. Right now I’m still looking for answers. If I ever crack either of the mysteries, I promise to share the answer right here on this blog!
Meanwhile, to celebrate the 42nd post and the commencing summer vacation,
I have a GIVEAWAY of my book, Initial Conditions.

Never heard about it. What is it about? Initial Conditions is a contemporary story about love, career, ambition, and science. It is set in a physics department of a fictitious elite university. The protagonist, Danielle Meller, is an aspiring physicist, with a pretty good opinion about her abilities. When she realizes that determination and hard work are not all what it takes to succeed, she embarks on a quest to understand the enigmatic dark energy. On her path, there are conflicts within and outside academia, clashing and changing goals, a battle of wills, and… love.

Hmm. Can you be more specific about the genre?
Is it science-fiction? Romance? Both?

The story involves realistic physics. It’s not science-fiction.
Love and relationship play a big part in the novel, but it’s not a romance.
Initial Conditions is a ‘mainstream fiction’.

So, it’s not in a genre I’m familiar with. Who might like it?
I want the answer to be “Everyone,” but that may belong to the department of “wishful thinking”. Here are a few points to consider:
It is neither fast-paced nor action-oriented. There is no explicit sex or violence.
Some readers felt that there is “a bit too much physics” and “it covers a whole lot of theoretical physics making it sometimes more of a tutorial than a story”. Others readers responded differently:

“In all, this is not a book for everyone but still a very worthwhile read for anyone who, like me, identifies with the subject matter and academic life in general.”

“I’m a lawyer and therefore physics is as far from my field of interests as it possibly could be, yet somehow, this book made me want to understand it more. I found the segments with physics-related talk everything but boring (even if I didn’t understand most of it, naturally)…
I recommend this to anyone, really; especially those who are knowledge hungry :)”

(The quotes are excerpts from reviews on Amazon.com and Goodreads)

Unsure whether the story might appeal to you? Try the first four chapters.

Ready to give the entire book a try? Enter the GIVEAWAY.
You’ll find my email address in “Contact.” Email me and note which ebook format you prefer (mobi / epub / pdf) and I’ll send it using “reply”. I intend to send the ebooks as requests come, but it may take a few days.

When can one enter? Anytime until the 4th of July, 2015.

Catch? No catch. I’m not going to reuse your email address to spam you with requests to leave a review. On the other hand, after reading the book, you may want to leave a review (see a review as a thank you). This would be appreciated.

Anything else? Fiction with realistic physics is quite rare, and a female physicist is even less likely to be a protagonist. I ask you guys to help spread the word. If you know someone who might enjoy Initial Conditions, please tell him/her about the giveaway.







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Raisin cake and the expanding universe

“Put a raisin cake in the oven, and it’s very small. Then you let it go, and the distance between the raisins is like the distance between the galaxies – it gets larger and larger with time.”
Neta Bahacall, in “Hubble’s Guide to the Expanding Universe”.

“By observing distant galaxies with the help of telescopes, nearly 100 years ago scientists discovered that our universe is getting bigger and bigger. The distances between the galaxies are constantly increasing, like the spaces between raisins in a raisin cake swelling in the oven. If we extrapolate backwards in time, we realise that this expansion must have begun about 14 billion years ago – in a primordial explosion that British astrophysicist Fred Hoyle called the Big Bang.”
Olga Botner, The Nobel Prize in Physics 2011 – Presentation Speech.

As you can see, physicists love to describe the expanding universe as a raisin cake. Here are two recent variations of the theme: Continue reading →

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Women in science: whom to ask for advice?

Through copse and spinney marched Bear; down open slopes of gorse and heather, over rocky beds of streams, up steep banks of sandstone into the heather again; and so at last, tired and hungry, to the Hundred Acre Wood. For it was in the Hundred Acre Wood that Owl lived.
“And if anyone knows anything about anything,” said Bear to himself, “it’s Owl who knows something about something,” he said, “or my name’s not Winnie-the-Pooh,” he said. “Which it is,” he added. “So there you are.”
Owl lived at The Chesnuts, an old-world residence of great charm, which was grander than anybody else’s, or seemed so to Bear, because it had both a knocker and a bell-pull.
From Winnie-the-Pooh by A. A. Milne

Why did Winnie-the-Pooh go through all this trouble? Because his friend Eeyore lost his tail, and he was “Moping about it”. Pooh is keen to help, but he doesn’t know what to do. So he seeks the advice of Owl, whom he considers as a great authority. Continue reading →

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